Tossing your plastic bottle into the recycling is an instinct in many places around the globe, but what happens next can vary dramatically depending on where you are. Ultimately, waste management is a global issue, as climate change and environmental issues aren’t constrained by borders. Yet, from North America to Europe to Asia, policies and regulations guide practices that often reflect the communities they belong to. As citizens, we need to understand the rippling effect of small changes in our households and communities on a larger scale to better advocate for new, innovative practices in our countries.

Recycling in the US/Canada

One significant marker of growth in green practices in North America was the presidency of Bill Clinton between the years of 1993 and 2001. His philosophy was to “green the government” and lead the United States by example, changing outdated machinery and infrastructure in executive housing to promote efficient watering, lighting, and agricultural systems. Former President Clinton issued several executive orders that addressed key issues where the government fell short, such as excessive energy consumption, which later dropped by $800 million in 1999 alone. The green practices of the White House, the executive branch, and the government during these years—especially influential due to the rise of central heating systems, air conditioning, and automated vehicles and machinery–proved President Clinton’s philosophy that a strong economy and a clean environment can coexist.

Later in the 2000s, the United States witnessed a rise in single-stream recycling, a method that simplified recycling to encourage participation by the masses. This tactic succeeded in garnering participation and support for recycling but later introduced issues of contamination from improper sorting. However, to support the influx of recycled materials, the United States required the large, consistent consumer that was early 21st-century China. Later, due to China’s increased selectivity with imported plastics, the United States lacked a market for plastics. Since then, many progressive recycling programs–particularly those that prioritized multi-stream recycling–have been defunded and terminated, as they competed with education and policing sectors for government funding.

Single-stream recycling remains the most commonly used form of recycling across America today. Many suggest that landfill recycling is simply a ‘waste of waste’, as recent numbers indicate that approximately one-quarter of all plastics in the United States are contaminated due to single-stream recycling and six times more plastics are incinerated than recycled. Similarly, in Canada, only 9% of the yearly 3 million tonnes of ‘recycled’ plastic waste is recycled to consumers; the rest ends up in landfills, waste-to-energy facilities, or the environment. Curbside recycling is common and impressively leads to recycling rates as high as 69% in British Columbia and 57% in Ontario in 2019, the two most highly populated provinces in the country. However, due to the low ‘real’ recycling rate, much of this waste ends up exported to Malaysia, where it is processed hastily into the environment and health of its inhabitants.

The United States and Canada, two of the most populated and influential countries in North America, share similar pitfalls. While the United States suffers from the ‘side-effects’ of single-stream recycling, Canada struggles to truly recycle the waste that its citizens produce and sort. Each country has a long way to go to properly recycle the nation’s plastic waste.

Recycling in Europe

The European Union, comprising 27 primarily European countries, legislated several goals for green practices in the EU demonstrating a commitment to developing a circular economy, a system where materials and products are regenerated sustainably. In the late 20th century, the EU’s Waste Framework Directive detailed the management of waste, byproducts, and end-of-waste criteria, setting the stage for later developments in Europe and the Americas in the early 21st century.

By the early 2000s, nations like Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands emerged as leaders in recycling, having implemented large-scale systems of deposit-return schemes and comprehensive recycling infrastructure. Europe emphasizes multi-stream recycling, which requires consumers to sort their trash before disposing of it. As this method is strictly enforced via penalties for noncompliance, it has led to significantly lower rates of contamination across Europe. Germany achieved a recycling rate of 65% in 2020. Following EU regulations, this refers to the recycling of municipal waste into new materials. However, this figure does not specify the portion of new materials sorted into new goods or simply those processed and resorted. A significant portion of Germany’s recycled glass and metals are indeed turned into new products, though much of their plastics are often downcycled or simply incinerated. 

Although the EU successfully accomplishes high recycling rates, countries that are highly regarded for advanced recycling infrastructure still struggle to process waste in unique ways. Countries such as Denmark implement smart waste systems that employ artificial intelligence to sort recyclables in an attempt to speed up the overall process. Others, such as Romania and Greece, simply suffer from underdeveloped infrastructure and limited public participation. Western European countries, which typically sustain larger populations, excel in achieving the EU’s recycling targets, but generate the most waste and struggle to find a balance between incineration and true recycling.

Though the EU remains a leader in global recycling efforts, there is still work to be done to ensure long-term sustainability. As Europe continues to advance in green infrastructure and smart waste systems, its comprehensive and strict approach still serves as an example to countries across the globe.

Recycling in Asia

Driven by increasing urbanization and economic and industrial activity, countries like Japan, South Korea, and China have implemented robust policies to address issues of waste. Japan’s 3R Initiative (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) in the early 2000s, coupled with the Basic Environmental Law, aimed to systematically promote policies for environmental conservation. Japan has since reached recycling rates exceeding 20% for plastics and nearly 100% for glass and metals by promoting public participation in recycling. The country blends cultural values of cleanliness, consideration, and politeness with the collective responsibility to care for the environment, successfully marketing to the public an incentive for sorting and disposing of recyclables.

In the late 1900s, South Korea implemented a volume-based waste fee system, charging households for quantities of unsorted trash. This system increased food waste recycling by up to 95% in 2020, with the waste most commonly being processed into animal feed, fertilizers, or biogas that generate energy sustainably. The country’s stringent bans on single-use plastics have also reduced packaging waste throughout the nation.

China has historically played an important but complex role in global recycling efforts. As mentioned previously, throughout the 20th century, China played a critical role as a consumer of recycled exports, which supported its robust manufacturing industries as well as the economies of various other countries. However, due to many environmental and health consequences, China later implemented the National Sword Policy (2018), essentially becoming more selective about the type of waste entering the country via imports. This policy influenced many other countries to adapt their recycling infrastructure to accommodate the new changes.

Rapidly industrializing but densely populated nations, such as India, Indonesia, and the Philippines, primarily struggle with inadequate infrastructure and rising plastic waste generation. Significant portions of ‘recycled’ waste in these countries end up in oceans, harming marine life and often even the health of locals. Many of these countries are now involved with international organizations in an attempt to improve waste management infrastructure.

Much like Europe, while many countries in Asia are advanced in waste management infrastructure, others remain a critical focal point for global recycling efforts.

Efforts to truly recycle waste vary greatly across continents, countries, and even homes. Ultimately, though recycling does certainly start small, a nation’s policies greatly impact the way its citizens view and handle recycling. Recycling culture on a larger scale stems from regions and municipalities, which start from you and me and our recycling habits.